Salute Veterans Day with These 25 Patriotic Quotes

Look back in history to read the names of our famous veterans. Their selfless sacrifice paved the way for our continued freedom. Our children can gain inspiration by reading about the sacrifices of our honorable veterans. Let us sow the seeds of equality and unity in the minds of our children and teach them to cherish their freedom. Let us also teach them the merits of voluntary service and sacrifice. No sacrifice is too small for acknowledgment, and nobody is greater than a patriot. In these famous Veterans Day quotes, noble men and women of the world have saluted to the spirit of patriotism. Mark TwainAnyone who has ever looked into the glazed eyes of a soldier dying on the battlefield will think hard before starting a war.Otto Von BismarkThe most persistent sound which reverberates through mens history is the beating of war drums.Arthur KoestlerBut the freedom that they fought for, and the country grand they wrought for, Is their monument to-day, and for aye.General DouglasWe are not retreating -- we are advancing in another direction.Napoleon BonaparteValor is a gift. Those having it never know for sure whether they have it till the test comes. And those having it in one test never know for sure if they will have it when the next test comes.Ronald ReaganSome people live an entire lifetime and wonder if they have ever made a difference in the world, but the Marines dont have that problem.Benjamin FranklinNever has there been a good war or a bad peace.G. K. ChestertonCourage is almost a contradiction in terms. It means a strong desire to live taking the form of readiness to die.Commodore Oliver Hazard PerryWe have met the enemy and they are ours!Adapted from Henry G. BohnA soldier is he whose blood makes the glory of the general.Ernest Miller HemmingwayOnce we have a war there is only one thing to do. It must be won. For defeat brings worse things than any that can ever happen in war.Charles Edward MontagueThe number of medals on an officers breast varies in inverse proportion to the square of the distance of his duties from the front line.George OrwellPeople sleep peaceably in their beds at night only because rough men stand ready to do violence on their behalf.Ferdinand FochHard pressed on my right. My center is yielding. Impossible to maneuver. Situation excellent. I am attacking.Allen WestAs a 22-year Army Veteran who served in Operations Desert Storm and Iraqi Freedom, and as a Civilian Advisor to the Afghan Army in Operation Enduring Freedom, I understand both the gravity of giving the order, and the challenge of carrying it out.Elmer DavisTh is will remain the land of the free only so long as it is the home of the brave.Dick CheneyIt is easy to take liberty for granted, when you have never had it taken from you.Alexander the GreatI do not fear an army of lions, if they are led by a lamb.I do fear an army of sheep, if they are led by a lion.Tao-te ChingHe who knows others is wise. He who knows himself is enlightened. He who conquers others has physical strength. He who conquers himself is strong.Rudyard KiplingWhen youre wounded out on Afghanistans plainsAnd the women come out to cut up what remains,Then just roll to your rifle and blow out your brainsAnd die like a good British soldier!Giulio DouhetYoull be scared! Sure youll be scared. Who wouldnt fear having their head completely blown off.Sir Philip SydneyA brave captain is as a root, out of which, as branches, the courage of his soldiers doth spring.Richard Gabriel, No More HeroesNations customary measure the cost of war in dollars, lost production, or the number of soldiers killed or wounded. Rarely do military establishments attempt to measure the cost of war in terms of individual human suffering. Psychiatric breakdown remains one of the costly items of war.Karl von ClausewitzWar should never be thought of as something autonomous, but always as an instrument of policy.ThemistoclesHe who has command of the sea has command of everything.

Affirmative Action Social Policy - 1348 Words

Affirmative Action Affirmative action is a social policy created to promote the welfare of minorities by supporting the idea that individuals are all created equal and should not be judged by race or gender. Therefore, in situations like job and university applications, we should consider minorities to be as feasible a choice for hire as a white male candidate, taking into consideration their background. In short, it tries to give minorities that have been at a disadvantage their whole life, an opportunity to ‘equal the playing field by providing a broader context by which to measure an applicant or prospective employee. In the end, however, this goal is not realized. Instead, superficial ‘quotas are established and the†¦show more content†¦Formal, colorblind equality has to be infringed now if we are ever to achieve real, meaningful racial and sexual quality. Unfortunately however, just like a firefighter may not fight fire with fire, you also cannot fight discrim ination with even more discrimination. The U.S. Constitution, our most powerful and sacred document that holds all the power in the government, is intended to be colorblind. The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees No state shallÂ… deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of laws. Affirmative action seems to be unconstitutional as it ignores the phrase equal protection. Instead of treating minorities like equals, it treats them like they are better than other members of society and, in particular, puts white males in a situational disadvantage like minorities once were. In effect, it s a form of reverse discrimination. Discrimination is discrimination, no matter what the underlying motive justifying it is. The final argument against affirmative action is this: Nondiscrimination will achieve our social goals; stronger affirmative action is unnecessary. This argument suggests that the Civil Rights Act is enough to end job and schoolShow MoreRela tedAffirmative Action : An Unfair Tool For Disadvantaged Minority Students857 Words   |  4 PagesAffirmative Action admission policies have been highly criticized since their enactment in the 1960’s. Conservatives see affirmative action as an unfair tool for underachieving minority students rather than a policy to correct past racial inequalities and promote a diverse learning environment. This ideology of affirmative action is portrayed in Jim Huber’s political cartoon, number 1 on the list. Penned for a conservative audience, Huber’s political cartoon argues against affirmative action by suggestingRead MoreAffirmative Action : Discrimination And Discrimination927 Words   |  4 PagesLegally, affirmative action refers to policies offering compensation to groups formerly targeted for discrimination and identified along social cleavages racial groups in the United States and South Africa, and religious groups in Northern Ireland. Affirmative action is also d escribed as a federally mandated program for federal contractors as it relates to employment. Civil Right results from federal and state laws against discrimination. Some groups of people have been discriminated and harassmentRead MoreRace Based Affirmative Action On Higher Education Essay1445 Words   |  6 PagesRace-Based Affirmative Action in Higher Education In 1961, President John F. Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925, which created the Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity, or CEEO. One purpose of the CEEO was to â€Å"recommend additional affirmative steps which should be taken by executive departments and agencies to realize more fully the national policy of nondiscrimination† (Kennedy). This executive order planted the seeds that grew into what is today known as â€Å"race-based affirmative action,† or theRead MoreAffirmative Action : Discrimination And Discrimination910 Words   |  4 PagesFirst affirmative action refers to policies offering compensation to groups formerly targeted for discrimination and identified along social cleavages - racial groups in the United States and South Africa, and religious groups in Northern Ireland. Affirmative action is a federally mandated program for federal contractors as it relates to employment. Civil rights result from a series of federal and state civil rights laws and provide protection from discrimination and harassment on a variety of basesRead MoreArgumentation-Persuasion Essay Affirmative Action1494 Words   |  6 PagesArgumentation-Persuasion Essay Affirmative Action Ronald Spears 16 March 2012 Constitution Law Bonnie Ronson Wiregrass Tech. College Online Abstract: The terms affirmative action refer to policies that take race, ethnicity, or gender into consideration in an attempt to promote equal opportunity or increase ethnic or other forms of diversity. The focus of such policies ranges from employment and education to public contracting and health programs. The impetus towards affirmative action is twofold: toRead MoreUnderlying Reasons for Affirmative Action1442 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction The issue of affirmative action has existed for around forty years, but the Wall Street Journal reports that the idea may be coming to an end (Sander Taylor, 2012). The reason for this is that while the idea of affirmative action originated for positive reasons, it has also had some negative side effects. In light of the possibility that affirmative actions are unwound, it is necessary to consider what might happen if that were to occur. This essay will consider precisely that issueRead MoreAffirmative Actions1078 Words   |  5 PagesRunning Head: AFFERMATIVE ACTION Affirmative Actions Affirmative action is an action taken by an organization to select on the basis of race, gender, or ethnicity by giving due preferences to minorities like women and races being not adequately represented under the existing employment. To make the presentation of all these compositions almost equal in proportion to do away the injustice done in the past. The Supreme Company need to design an affirmative action program in the light ofRead MoreThe Precedency: Supporting the Affrimative Action Essay1486 Words   |  6 PagesAffirmative action is a government policy that gives opportunities to minorities, women, and any group who has been the victim of discrimination in the past. Affirmative action is the outcome of the 1960’s Civil Rights movement, growing out of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which outlawed discrimination based on race, ethnicity, or gender. It was the 1978 Supreme Court decision, The Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, which allowed for the use of race-based preferences as a means ofRead MoreAffirmative Action : Discrimination Against Minorities1513 Words   |  7 PagesOthmane Ezzabdi AP Seminar Affirmative Action Affirmative action has been apart of the work environment in America since the 1960s until present time. Its main goal has been to suppress the discrimination against minorities and to give them a fighting chance to succeed in achieving their goal of living the American dream all in an act to counter the inexcusable racism and discrimination that has been inhumanely placed on to the minorities over a century ago in the United States; it will ultimatelyRead MoreAn Argument Against Affirmative Action Essay1716 Words   |  7 PagesPaved with Good Intentions: An Argument Against Affirmative Action Out of the jaws of civil war, the new United States had emerged. Broken and burning and minus 620,000 men, a new challenge lay before the nation: social equality. How would we address the sickening grievances endured by these African American now-citizens? That question has hallmarked fiery debates from dinner tables all the way to the Supreme Court for more than a century. During the Civil Rights Movement, millions of American citizens

Trend in Global Business & Environment-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Trends in the Global Business Environment. Answer: Introduction This summary focuses on Beyond Automation, a study done by the Oxford University on advancing the automation. This will attract knowledge workers to visit and see the smart machines (Boehm and Thomas 2013.) The collaborators and the partners act as the problem solving members. Machines have made the human life easier over the years. There have been three eras of automation since the 19th century. This study has also shows the importance of augmentation. Machines act as a substitution of human labor. Automation insured the increase in productivity and raise in income or earnings. The significance of this study is that it highlights on a factor, which states that smart machines, or by the method of automation help in resolving problems. Computers are one of the most developed machines which has helped in the progress and increase of productivity. Getting augmentation in work employees needs to be convinced that the combination of humans and computers are better than manual. Beyond Auto mation deals with the usage of smart technology which will change the mindset of the future. Body In this study of Beyond Automation, it conducts the advancement of automation and technology. The study talks about how human labor can be demolished with the help of automation (Stocker and Shaheen 2017). Machines and technology will change the production level of the companies. The important finding of this study states that generation of today should go beyond automation. Traditionally, a large proportion of population is still dependent on human labor. Although the motive of automation is to get rid of human labor and take a grip of the recent developments in technology. Beyond Automation identified the benefits of the human beings working with machines (Phillips 2017). It also focuses on augmentation. The theory of augmentation is to deepen the use of machines rather than diminish it. Usage of intelligent machines and other technology will make human beings do their jobs easily. It will lead to different outcomes and the positive ones. Strategies and steps were considered for th e development of new automatic technologies in the market. Employees of different professional background should love augmentation. Augmentation strategy helps every individual to perform his or her jobs without any difficulty. Naturally, this will make the enterprise enjoy success. Automation has made operations more efficient. Either a small or a large business, automation will always help the employees or workers work smoothly and efficiently deliver their work. The review identifies the latest innovation of the generation. Future role of humans clearly depends on machines (Groover 2016). However, some employees might say that they are leading the life of a robot. Working with machines cam make people feel so but they must overlook that and look at the brighter factors. When it comes to doing repetitive tasks, machines are highly useful. Therefore, smart machines are majorly used in industries. Industries do repetitive work every day. Cognitive technologies have been supporting h umans for centuries. This review also highlighted self awareness (McAfee and Brynjolfsson 2016). Machines have the ability to perform independently. Machines and computers have the power or ability to work beyond human levels of intelligence. Machines can analyze numbers, pictures and perform digital tasks. This is out of the capacity if a human being to perform all these tasks at the same time. Robotic process automation uses work flow business rules and technology to interface innumerous system like it was a human user. ATM (Automated Teller Machine) does the work of a robot. It is a popular banking technology, which has made the life of humans easy. This strategy will work in the long term for both the employers and the employees (Kelty 2014). By emphasizing augmentation, threat of automation can be diminished. Next level of encroachment involves the work that is highly augmented by software. Over the years, companies will develop solutions for programming and applications. There fore, the study of beyond automation focuses on the merits of it. It shows how automation and machines are applied in day-to-day lives. Humans and technologies will be working together in the future. Experts are modifying technologies. General The article of Beyond Automation consists of an idea that human beings should be made to work together. The ideas were linked together and were logical too. Automation was not invented on one fine day. It has been existing for three eras (MacCrory 2014). In the 19th Century, machines used to exist to take away the dirty and dangerous materials. Such industrial machines were invented to reduce manual or human labor. These special equipments can only be used in industries. This was the first era, which introduced the use of machinery in industries. The second era was known as the 20th century. Machines relieved humans from routine service transactions and clerical chores. The automated machines or equipments which were invented were used in call centers and airline kiosks. At that time, machines helped to take away the dullness of the work. Lastly, comes the third era. Third era is known as the 21st century. Machinery equipments had developed massively in the last two centuries. Theref ore, in the present century it was observed that machines takes away decisions (Dogan and Yildirim 2017). Like human beings, machines were also made smart intelligent systems. Humans completely rely on machines and they are fast. Although, machines do require the help of human beings when they are operated. This is how automation was originated. However, these ideas were put together in logical activities and they were a success as well. Economic recession to employment will reduce along with individual crisis. Smart machines have been making the lives of people easy since the 19th century (Fortunati, Esposito and Lugano 2015). The article focuses on the career strategies as to how automation is replacing many manual labors. Business Review has talked about the effects of automation in the generation and improved the quality of work at every workplace. Machines or automations on behalf of human beings also take decisions. From an augmentation view, people renegotiate their relations hip to machines and realign their contributions in different ways. Todays generation relies on technology for almost every activity they do. Automation has improved the lives of individuals. The merits of automation have convinced a large number of people in todays generation. This will also be useful, beneficial and improve the generation. However, the profitability of enterprises depends on the creativity of people (Grote, Weyer and Stanton 2014). Even if the whole process is controlled and done by machines, human beings also do some amount of work. Creativity in a work matters as it counts in the profit ratio. Employers have a tendency to consider people and machines as substitute goods. Automation means working like robots. Automated machines are equipments which does the operation and work of human beings with the consent of human beings. Now, humans are dependent on computerized software to get any kind of work done. Beyond automation deals with the scenario where there is pra ctically no existence of manual or human labor (Marsh 2017). This particular article or study of Harvard made the pros and cons of beyond automation very much evident to the writer and the reader. Discussion The discussion covers the concept of beyond motivation in the present century and generation (Bibel 2013). In an era of innovation, the focus has to be on people of the current generation who rely completely on technology and automation. Five Steps of Consideration There are five steps that are to be considered for adapting automation. Automation and technologies play a chief role in the performance of employees and workers in an organization or enterprise. The first step towards adapting automation is to step up. People who are capable of bigger jobs should grasp the concept of automation. This way employee can let the machines do the work and he can take advantage of the opportunity. Artificial intelligence is beneficial for every worker working in an enterprise. Stepping up will lead to gaining long education on automation. Knowledge workers will have access to the procedure of automation. They will also have interest in knowing the pattern and how the machines are being used. Another step for consideration is stepping aside. This means focusing on uncodifiable strengths. One should develop and respect the intelligence of the other person. Automated machineries help them to achieve things easily that can be done with the use of machines. The third step is stepping in. People who are capable of steeping in should know how to monitor and modify the work of computers. Audit reports and accounts are done with the help of the software and the computer. However, human beings are made to work on programming codes. Automated machines recognize applications and projects because they have that software. A lot of brain work is needed that cannot be codified. Step narrowly is the fourth step of consideration of beyond automation. This approach involves the benefit to those who have gained the benefit of formal education through the on job training. Human builds databases only. These databases are then connected to the automated machines to receive the desired outcome. The last step is stepping forward. It means educating the next generation about computing and other technological tools. Automated insurance solutions solve the problems of human. Human beings are in need of better systems to work with. Augmentation here means the use of something greater. In this context it states that human beings and machines are complement to each other as they work together. Benefits of Beyond Automation The most significant finding from this summary is that automation helps in the development and future of the present generation. This includes workplaces, industries, shops etc. Starting from industries to banks has developed the concept of automation. Automated machines in the banks have made the procedure of depositing and transacting easier and faster (Chui, Manyika and Miremadi 2015). This way both the employees of the bank and the customers are satisfied. Production of work at workplaces and industries has also increased. Machinery equipments have also developed over the years. Innovation on existing machineries and invention of automated machines has also been useful in almost every professional field. Automation will be highly beneficial for the present and future generation. Humans and computers working together will lead to greater production and services. This method is also cost efficient. There are plenty of merits of automation. Inventions that are beyond automation also exist for the development of the sectors. Businesses and other corporate enterprises have been benefitted with the theory or concept of human and computers working simultaneously (Heimbach, Kostyra and Hinz 2015). Automated machines have also benefitted individuals. The strategy will be helpful and beneficial in the end for both the employers and the employees. They must know how to use the smart machines while working. Manual and human labors are removed completely with the help of such concept (Onnasch 2015). Although, the concept of using automated machineries will give the feel of a robot Conclusion The strength of the research on the article of Beyond Automation is that it is a new method or invention to increase the production and development of the enterprises and of individuals. The weakness of this research states that the machines will not help to gain the profits of an enterprise. Human beings need to be creative and put effort on the assigned job. Effort of the machines will not fetch profit of the organization. Hence, both the computers and human beings working together will resolve the problems of the organization. The innovation will be beneficial for the development of the sectors. In general, this concept of beyond automation is worth the try. From the 19th centuries, machines have been acting as a savior to manual labor. In the 21st century, beyond automation has diminished the concept of manual labor completely and led to a better future. Bibliography: Boehm, M. and Thomas, O., 2013. Looking beyond the rim of one's teacup: a multidisciplinary literature review of Product-Service Systems in Information Systems, Business Management, and Engineering Design.Journal of Cleaner Production,51, pp.245-260. Philips, S., 2017. The future of research is intelligence augmentation.Research World,2017(65), pp.42-45. Britton, B.L. and Atkinson, D.G., 2016. An Investigation into the Significant Impacts of Automation in Asset Management.Economic and Social Development: Book of Proceedings, p.393. Groover, M.P., 2016.Automation, production systems, and computer-integrated manufacturing. Pearson Education India. Chui, M., Manyika, J. and Miremadi, M., 2015. Four fundamentals of workplace automation.McKinsey Quarterly,29(3), pp.1-9. Onnasch, L., 2015. Benefits and costs of automation support: the role of function allocation and automation reliability. Bibel, W., 2013.Automated theorem proving. Springer Science Business Media. MacCrory, F., Westerman, G., Alhammadi, Y. and Brynjolfsson, E., 2014. Racing with and against the machine: changes in occupational skill composition in an era of rapid technological advance. Grote, G., Weyer, J. and Stanton, N.A., 2014. Beyond human-centred automationconcepts for humanmachine interaction in multi-layered networks. Heimbach, I., Kostyra, D.S. and Hinz, O., 2015. Marketing automation.Business Information Systems Engineering,57(2), pp.129-133. Kelty, C., 2014. Beyond copyright and technology: What open access can tell us about precarity, authority, innovation, and automation in the university today.Cultural Anthropology,29(2), pp.203-215. Marsh, M., 2017. Automation: Will the Fourth Industrial Revolution Lead to the Downfall of Human Labor?. Fortunati, L., Esposito, A. and Lugano, G., 2015. Introduction to the special issue Beyond industrial robotics: social robots entering public and domestic spheres. Dogan, M. and Yildirim, P., 2017. Man vs. Machine: When is Automation Inferior to Human Labor?. McAfee, A. and Brynjolfsson, E., 2016. Human Work in the Robotic Future: Policy for the Age of Automation.Foreign Aff.,95, p.139. Stocker, A. and Shaheen, S., 2017, July. Shared automated vehicles: Review of business models. InInternational Transport Forum.

Memory for Designs Test

Introduction The examination of the functioning of the memory of an individual cannot be limited to only one memory test, and as a result, there are a variety of assessments that target the various features of the memory. Memory test procedures take into consideration various attributes including features of the test instrument such as legitimacy and consistency of results.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Memory for Designs Test specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Tests should ideally sample a variety of non-related features of the memory to make sure that particular inadequacies in the memory can be identified. In addition to this, aspects of recall and recognition should be tested, as a way to monitor memory processes in relation to memory indicators (Dustman Beck, 1980). It has been observed that most of the memory encounters are incidental as opposed to premeditated. In view of this, one of the tests a dministered should be unexpected, to prevent rehearsal. Some tests are administered through visual aspects, ignoring auditory-verbal presentation modes as well as motor-retrieval response modes. To make certain that the results obtained are well- founded, the person administering the tests should sample an appropriately broad range of test behaviors. Computerized testing has a number of drawbacks including time consuming and high cost of setting up the system (Dustman Beck, 1980). Memory for designs test The Memory for designs test was designed by Graham and Kendall, in 1946. The test examines visual recall of an individual based on brain damage versus functional disorder versus normality. It is a popular test for the examination of brain damage in children and adults. The scoring system allows the accumulation of normative data (Graham Kendall, 1947). Administration of the test The test is administered by presenting a series of fifteen geometric designs of increasing difficulty o n individual cards. The cards are nine by twelve inch pieces of paper, with all designs drawn on the same piece of paper. Each design is presented to the individual alone, in a prearranged sequence. The subject is supposed to view the design for five seconds before it is removed from his view. The test’s duration is about five to ten minutes (Erickson Scott, 1977). Development of the test The memory test was intended to draw the line and distinguish between individuals who are organically impaired and those who are functionally impaired. The inability to reproduce geometric designs from immediate memory is related to organic impairment.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More After the test was introduced, forty designs were set and administered to a few individuals who had brain damage. The final set of tests included those designs that were found to be easiest to score as well as discriminate best between groups. The test has since been used with all age groups for both clinical and research purposes (Erickson Scott, 1977). Sample According to Graham and Kendell (1960), there were a variety of samples such as the original validation group and a cross-validation group. In the original group, there were 70 brain-disorder patients with mixed diagnoses and 70 controls. They were all matched for age, education and occupational status. The original group included an equal number of males and females, as well as African Americans. The age bracket of the subjects was 9 to 69 years, with an average age of 42 years. The average educational level was eighth grade. The latter group comprised 33 brain-disordered patients and 168 control patients. There were three times as many men as women, with an average age of 28 years for the controls and 37 years for the brain-disordered subjects. Both groups had an average education of ninth grade (Peterson Mangen, 1981). Scoring, scale norms and distribution According to the criteria provided by Graham and Kendall (1960), each reproduction has a score of 0-3, whereby the highest score signifies the worst performance. There was no penalty due to incomplete or forgotten designs. This is because the variables did not distinguish brain damaged subjects from control subjects. Reliability tests According to Graham and Kendell (1960), the split half reliability was .92 for 140 brain-damaged patients. Test-retest correlations conducted in the same session or within a 24 hour period for other groups ranged between .81 and .90. The clinical usefulness of the test is based on the adequacy of its standardization for various age groups as well as a variety of non-brained-damaged, psychiatric individuals. The reliability of the scoring is suitable based on data provided in the test manual. In addition to this, new studies on the reliability have found it satisfactory. Qualitative scores are possible based on a m easure of the tendency to rotate the designs, whereby the error can be reliably calculated (Graham Kendall, 1947). The age standardization for normal adults is adequate though the normative data that is available for different functional psychiatric groups is not. It has been observed that some functional psychiatric disorders produce lower scores on the MFD test, though there are no age norms for representative populations of functional psychiatric disorders.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Memory for Designs Test specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This poses a challenge in the omission of the presence of a specific functional psychiatric disorder as a substitute explanation of a poor score based on the presently available norms, unless the alternative was eliminated on a different basis (Peterson Mangen, 1981). Validity tests An analysis of a large number of tests conducted on a sample of a hundred pe ople to diagnose brain damage showed a +.597 for the memory for designs test on the first factor. This was interpreted as perceptual organization or the ability to integrate the relevant aspects of the perceptual field. Based on the perceptual organization factor, a memory aspect was observed from the tests, proving that perceptual organization was able to facilitate performance when memory was involved (Peterson Mangen, 1981). The MFD test has been proven to always differentiate between groups of patients known without any doubt to have brain damage, as well as to match groups of normal people and psychiatric patients thought not to be brain damaged. According to the definition of brain damage, that it is any amount of cell death in the cerebral cortex irrespective of the cause, every person aged above 30 years would be brain damaged. Some forms of birth trauma, childhood injuries and anoxia cause cell death in many normal children, though the damage is insignificant since it does not result in impairment (Richie Butler, 1964). Predictive validity According to data presented in the Graham and Kendall ( 1960) test manual, a significant mean score difference between a group of brain-damaged and normal individuals, at the 0.01 level. This indicated an overlap in the scores of the non-brain-damaged and brain damaged groups that caused difficulties in coming up with a decision on the performance of borderline people. An example was the cut-off point whereby 4% of the controls were diagnosed as having brain damage. Out of these, half of the brain-damaged subjects in one group and 48% in another group were designated with brain damage. The other cut-off point made for varied combinations of correct identifications, errors and false positives (Richie Butler, 1964). Convergent validity According to Warren and Mangen, the memory for designs test correlated .85 and .81 with scores on the Bender Gestalt test.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Usability on older populations The test is timed. In addition to this, manual coordination is required. The involvement of these factors implies that the aged may be handicapped. Sensitivity to age difference According to Peterson and Mangen, there was a significant correlation between performance and age, of 0.27. This implied that an increase in age of the subject corresponded to poorer performance of the subject. There was also a correlation of -.31 of the MFD test scores with intelligence. Assessment by the vocabulary score on the Wechsler-Bellevue showed a significant multiple correlation of .44 with age and intelligence (Peterson Mangen, 1981). According to a study conducted on psychiatric patients aged above 60 years, 36 brain damaged and 36 controls, there was a considerable difference in the mean scores, which was not as high as that between, brain-damaged and standardization groups of younger ages. The mean scores were 8.44 and 13.89, while the SD was 6.33 and 5.81 for th e controls and brain-damaged group respectively. There was a big difference between this age group and all younger control groups, though the difference with the scores of adults between the ages of 20 and 60 did not vary much. The confounding factor was that the controls over 60 years had a decline in vocabulary scores that was the same as that of the brain-damaged groups, which yielded negative results for the younger ages. This signified that the use of psychiatric controls for the older age-group would be unsuitable (Dustman Beck, 1980). According to another study conducted for subjects between the age of 20 and 80, with 50 men and 40 men in each constituent decade, the performance of older age groups on the MFD was observed to be stable until the age of fifty, after which there was a fast decline and increased variability in subjects’ performances (Peterson Mangen, 1981). Conclusion The test’s reliability and validity are good, since it discriminates in a ration al manner between groups with brain damage and normal groups. The test has limitations when conducted on aged subjects since it requires manual coordination. In addition to this, it is timed and the performance correlates with age and intelligence. Unusual scores signify damage in a specific cortical area, which in turn signifies a formerly particular dysfunction. It could be translated to mean a shortened life expectancy, though the MFD is hardly translated to imply such occurrences. Studies have shown an insignificant correlation between MFD score and a rating of severity of brain damage according to certain assessment criteria such as EFG (Peterson Mangen, 1981). Other studies have also shown a wide range of MFD scores when the test is administered to a psychiatric group whose brain damage status is uncertain, resulting in no conclusions from the features shown by the group. One practical consequence of an abnormal MFD score which has been demonstrated is that the patient is lik ely also to have abnormal scores on several other tests of brain damage such as the Bender Gestalt Test, and the Benton Visual Retention Test. An abnormal MFD score might enable the clinical psychologist to identify a previously unknown pattern of associated psychological abnormalities which might have implications for the adjustment of the patient. Another useful implication of an abnormal MFD score among children is that one might anticipate difficulties in learning to read, as suggested by several studies (Erickson Scott, 1977). References Dustman, R. E., Beck, E. C. (1980). Memory-For-Designs Test: comparison of performance of young and old adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 36(3), 770-774. Erickson, R. C., Scott, M. L. (1977). Clinical Memory Testing. Psychological Bulletin , 1130-1149. Graham, F., Kendall, B. (1947). Memory-For-Design’s Test. Journal of Consulting Psychology , 11(6). Peterson, W. A., Mangen, D. J. (1981). Research Instruments in Social Geront ology: Clinical and Social Psychology (Clinical Social Psychology). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Richie, J., Butler, A. (1964). Performance of retardates on the memory-for-designs test. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 20(1), 108-110. This research paper on Memory for Designs Test was written and submitted by user Maximiliano Sosa to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.